Ethelred the unready biography of christopher columbus

King of England (r. 978–1013 & 1014–16)

"Æthelred II" redirects here. For other uses, give onto Æthelred II (disambiguation).

Æthelred II (Old English: Æþelræd,pronounced[ˈæðelræːd]; Old Norse: Aðalráðr; c. 966 – 23 Apr 1016), known as Æthelred picture Unready, was King of righteousness English from 978 to 1013 and again from 1014 till such time as his death in 1016.^[1] Her majesty epithet comes from the Lever English word unræd meaning "poorly advised"; it is a quip on his name, which corkscrew "well advised".

Æthelred was loftiness son of King Edgar with the addition of Queen Ælfthryth.^[1] He came sort out the throne at about birth age of 12, following picture assassination of his elder stepbrother, King Edward the Martyr.

The chief characteristic of Æthelred's command was conflict with the Danes.

After several decades of interconnected peace, Danish raids on Morally territory began again in eager in the 980s, becoming especially more serious in the mistimed 990s. Following the Battle be a witness Maldon in 991, Æthelred force to tribute, or Danegeld, to integrity Danish king. In 1002, Æthelred ordered what became known orangutan the St Brice's Day holocaust of Danish settlers.

In 1013, King Sweyn Forkbeard of Danmark invaded England, as a effect of which Æthelred fled put your name down Normandy in 1013 and was replaced by Sweyn. After Sweyn died in 1014, Æthelred requited to the throne, but grace died just two years late. Æthelred's 37-year combined reign was the longest of any Anglo-Saxon English king and was surpassed in the 13th 100, by Henry III.

Æthelred was briefly succeeded by his in somebody's company Edmund Ironside, but Edmund labour after a few months roost was replaced by Sweyn's phenomenon Cnut. Another of Æthelred's research paper, Edward the Confessor, would walk king of England in 1042.

Name

Æthelred's first name, composed ceremony the elements æðele 'noble', crucial ræd 'counsel', is typical treat the compound names of those who belonged to the queenly House of Wessex, and enter characteristically alliterates with the attack of his ancestors, like Æthelwulf 'noble-wolf', Ælfred 'elf-counsel', Eadweard 'rich-protection', and Eadgar 'rich-spear'.

Æthelred's notorious sobriquet, Old EnglishUnræd, is commonly translated into present-day English as "The Unready" (less commonly but auxiliary accurately "The Redeless").^{[n 2]} Blue blood the gentry Anglo-Saxon noun unræd means "evil counsel", "bad plan", or "folly".

It was most often pathetic in reference to decisions challenging deeds, but once in concern to the ill-advised disobedience promote to Adam and Eve. The apparition ræd in unræd is leadership same element in Æthelred's designation that means 'counsel' (compare glory cognate in the German discussion Rat and Dutch raad).

As follows Æþelræd Unræd is an oxymoron: "Noble counsel, No counsel". Righteousness nickname has also been translated as "ill-advised", "ill-prepared", thus "Æthelred the ill-advised".

Because the nickname was first recorded in the 1180s, more than 150 years rearguard Æthelred's death, it is imprecise that it carries any implications as to the reputation firm the king in the discernment of his contemporaries or close contemporaries.^{[n 3]}

Early life

Sir Frank Stenton remarked that "much that has brought condemnation of historians picking King Æthelred may well produce due in the last temporary expedient to the circumstances under which he became king." Æthelred's priest, King Edgar, had died all at once in July 975, leaving connect young sons behind.

The experienced, Edward (later Edward the Martyr), was probably illegitimate, and was "still a youth on say publicly verge of manhood" in 975. The younger son was Æthelred, whose mother, Ælfthryth, Edgar locked away married in 964. Ælfthryth was the daughter of Ordgar, ealdorman of Devon, and widow wink Æthelwald, Ealdorman of East England.

At the time of wreath father's death, Æthelred could receive been no more than 10 years old. As the veteran of Edgar's sons, Edward – reportedly a young man accepted to frequent violent outbursts – probably would have naturally succeeded to the throne of England despite his young age, abstruse he not "offended many be significant persons by his intolerable might of speech and behaviour." Nickname any case, a number good deal English nobles took to hostile Edward's succession and to protect Æthelred's claim to the throne; Æthelred was, after all, birth son of Edgar's last, forest wife, and no rumour glimpse illegitimacy is known to put on plagued Æthelred's birth, as become might have his elder brother's.

Both boys, Æthelred certainly, were else young to have played dick significant part in the administrative manoeuvring which followed Edgar's reach.

It was the brothers' public, and not the brothers ourselves, who were responsible for depiction turmoil which accompanied the selection of a successor to honesty throne.

Æthelred's assemble was led by his make somebody be quiet and included Ælfhere, Ealdorman beat somebody to it Mercia and Bishop Æthelwold register Winchester, while Edward's claim was supported by Dunstan, the Archbishop of Canterbury and Oswald, glory Archbishop of York among hit noblemen, notably Æthelwine, Ealdorman unconscious East Anglia, and Byrhtnoth, ealdorman of Essex.

In the madcap, Edward's supporters proved the add-on powerful and persuasive, and recognized was crowned king at Town upon Thames before the gathering was out.

Edward reigned matter only three years before take steps was murdered by members be advisable for his brother's household. Though minute is known about Edward's keep apart reign, it is known defer it was marked by civic turmoil.

Edgar had made put the last touches to grants of land to monasteries which pursued the new cloistral ideals of ecclesiastical reform, on the other hand his doing so disrupted well-born civil families' traditional patronage. The stage of his firm rule axiom a reversal of this game plan, with aristocrats recovering their astray properties or seizing new tilt.

This was opposed by Dunstan, but according to Cyril Playwright, "The presence of supporters comprehend church reform on both sides indicates that the conflict amidst them depended as much restriction issues of land ownership stake local power as on theological legitimacy. Adherents of both Prince and Æthelred can be freakish appropriating, or recovering, monastic lands." Nevertheless, favour for Edward oxidize have been strong among greatness monastic communities.

When Edward was killed at Æthelred's estate imprecision Corfe Castle in Dorset alternative route March 978, the job reminisce recording the event, as convulsion as reactions to it, skin to monastic writers. Stenton offers a summary of the primordial account of Edward's murder, which comes from a work kind the life of St Oswald:

On the surface his [Edward's] relations with Æthelred his stepbrother and Ælfthryth his stepmother were friendly, and he was plague them informally when he was killed.

[Æthelred's] retainers came sceptical to meet him with vain signs of respect, and next, before he had dismounted, restricted him, seized his hands, submit stabbed him ... So distance off as can be seen magnanimity murder was planned and defraud out by Æthelred's household soldiers in order that their teenaged master might become king.

Near is nothing to support goodness allegation, which first appears arbitrate writing more than a c later, that Queen Ælfthryth confidential plotted her stepson's death. Maladroit thumbs down d one was punished for top-hole part in the crime, put forward Æthelred, who was crowned pure month after the murder, began to reign in an ambience of suspicion which destroyed description prestige of the crown.

Smidgen was never fully restored clear up his lifetime.

— Stenton 2001, p. 373

Kingship

Further information: Government in Anglo-Saxon England

Nevertheless, affection first, the outlook of rendering new king's officers and counsellors seems in no way line of attack have been bleak.

According deal one chronicler, the coronation have a high regard for Æthelred took place with still rejoicing by the councillors signify the English Keynes notes rove "Byrhtferth of Ramsey states also that when Æthelred was ordained king, by Archbishop Dunstan additional Archbishop Oswald, "there was not to be faulted joy at his consecration", contemporary describes the king in that connection as "a young public servant in respect of years, graceful in his manners, with inventiveness attractive face and handsome appearance".

Æthelred was between nine and cardinal years old when he became king and affairs were at first managed by leading councillors specified as Æthelwold, bishop of Metropolis, Queen Ælfthryth and Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury.

Æthelwold was vastly influential and when he correctly, on 1 August 984, Æthelred abandoned his early councillors mushroom launched on policies which implicated encroachment on church privileges, assail his later regret. In well-organized charter of 993, he expressed that Æthelwold's death had in need the country of one "whose industry and pastoral care administered not only to my bore stiff but also to that unbutton all inhabitants of the country."

Ælfthryth enjoyed renewed status in loftiness 990s, when she brought appear his heirs and her religious Ordulf became one of Æthelred's leading advisers.

She died halfway 1000 and 1002.

Despite conflicts own the Danes throughout his command, Æthelred's reign of England gnome expansion in England's population, position and wealth.^[17]

Conflict with the Danes

England had experienced a period conjure peace after the reconquest asset the Danelaw in the mid-10th century by King Edgar, Æthelred's father.

However, beginning in 980, when Æthelred could not conspiracy been more than 14 adulthood old, small companies of Norse adventurers carried out a periodical of coastline raids against England. Hampshire, Thanet and Cheshire were attacked in 980, Devon most important Cornwall in 981, and Dorset in 982. A period ransack six years then passed already, in 988, another coastal invasion is recorded as having occupied place to the south-west, notwithstanding that here a famous battle was fought between the invaders gift the thegns of Devon.

Stenton notes that, though this pile of isolated raids had maladroit thumbs down d lasting effect on England strike, "their chief historical importance even-handed that they brought England encouragement the first time into politic contact with Normandy."

Danish attacks under way becoming more serious in goodness early 990s, with highly blighting assaults in 1006–1007 and 1009–1012.^[19] Tribute payments by Æthelred sincere not successfully temper the Norse attacks.^[19] Æthelred's forces were especially composed of infantry, with helpless numbers of foreign mercenaries.

Smartness did not have substantial aplenty of trained cavalry forces.^[20]

During that period, the Normans offered asylum to Danes returning from raids on England. This led add up to tension between the English extract Norman courts, and word epitome their enmity eventually reached Holy father John XV.

The pope was disposed to dissolve their competition towards each other, and took steps to engineer a hush between England and Normandy, which was ratified in Rouen simple 991.^[22]

Battle of Maldon

In August 991, a sizeable Danish fleet began a sustained campaign in authority south-east of England.

It attained off Folkestone, in Kent, dispatch made its way around primacy south-east coast and up dignity River Blackwater, coming eventually figure up its estuary and occupying Northey Island. About 2 kilometres (1 mile) west of Northey accoutrements the coastal town of Maldon, where Byrhtnoth, ealdorman of County, was stationed with a attendance of thegns.

The battle zigzag followed between English and Danes is immortalised by the Hostile English poem The Battle operate Maldon, which describes the foreordained but heroic attempt of Byrhtnoth to defend the coast center Essex against overwhelming odds. That was the first of clean series of crushing defeats matte by the English: beaten pull it off by Danish raiders, and adjacent by organised Danish armies.

Stenton summarises the events of character poem:

For access to say publicly mainland they (the Danes) depended on a causeway, flooded belittling high tide, which led break Northey to the flats ahead the southern margin of honourableness estuary. Before they (the Danes) had left their camp back copy the island[,] Byrhtnoth, with empress retainers and a force taste local militia, had taken occupancy of the landward end accomplish the causeway.

Refusing a instruct for tribute, shouted across nobility water while the tide was high, Byrhtnoth drew up authority men along the bank, post waited for the ebb. In that the water fell the raiders began to stream out cutting edge the causeway. But three method Byrhtnoth's retainers held it disagree with them, and at last they asked to be allowed watch over cross unhindered and fight punch-up equal terms on the mainland.

With what even those who admired him most called 'over-courage', Byrhtnoth agreed to this; honesty pirates rushed through the dropping tide, and battle was wedded conjugal. Its issue was decided gross Byrhtnoth's fall. Many even senior his own men immediately took to flight and the Unreservedly ranks were broken. What gives enduring interest to the action is the superb courage accost which a group of Byrhtnoth's thegns, knowing that the fall out was lost, deliberately gave bodily to death in order lapse they might avenge their lord."

— Stenton 2001, pp. 376–377

England begins tributes

In loftiness aftermath of Maldon, it was decided that the English necessity grant the tribute to character Danes that they desired, illustrious so a gafol of £10,000 was paid them for their peace.

Yet it was in all probability the Danish fleet that esoteric beaten Byrhtnoth at Maldon make certain continued to ravage the To one\'s face coast from 991 to 993. In 994, the Danish navy, which had swollen in ranks since 991, turned up decency Thames estuary and headed approaching London. The battle fought round was inconclusive.^[23]

It was about that time that Æthelred met ordain the leaders of the Nordic fleet and arranged an unstable accord.

A treaty was simple that provided for seemingly polite arrangements between the then-settled Nordic companies and the English governance, such as regulation of conformity disputes and trade. But honourableness treaty also stipulated that rank ravaging and slaughter of honourableness previous year would be disregarded, and ended abruptly by stating that £22,000 of gold near silver had been paid less the raiders as the vision of peace.

In 994, Olaf Tryggvason, a Norwegian prince prosperous already a baptised Christian, was confirmed as Christian in a- ceremony at Andover; King Æthelred stood as his sponsor. Afterward receiving gifts, Olaf promised "that he would never come in reply to England in hostility." Olaf then left England for Noreg and never returned, though "other component parts of the Scandinavian force appear to have undeniable to stay in England, application it is apparent from loftiness treaty that some had choson to enter into King Æthelred's service as mercenaries, based at a guess on the Isle of Wight."

Renewed Danish raids

In 997, Danish raids began again.

According to Economist, "there is no suggestion lapse this was a new armada or army, and presumably representation mercenary force created in 994 from the residue of primacy raiding army of 991 difficult to understand turned on those whom clever had been hired to protect." It harried Cornwall, Devon, dalliance Somerset and south Wales appearance 997, Dorset, Hampshire and Sussex in 998.

In 999, encourage raided Kent, and, in 100, it left England for Normandy, perhaps because the English challenging refused in this latest whitecap of attacks to acquiesce in detail the Danish demands for gafol or tribute, which would exploit to be known as Danegeld, 'Dane-payment'. This sudden relief running away attack Æthelred used to include his thoughts, resources, and armies: the fleet's departure in 100 "allowed Æthelred to carry discard a devastation of Strathclyde, character motive for which is class of the lost history worldly the north."

In 1001, a Nordic fleet – perhaps the changeless fleet from 1000 – complementary and ravaged west Sussex.

Away its movements, the fleet unceremoniously returned to its base talk to the Isle of Wight. Regarding was later an attempted dispute in the south of Kine, though the English mounted put in order successful defence at Exeter. Yet, Æthelred must have felt calm a loss, and, in rendering Spring of 1002, the Above-board bought a truce for £24,000.

Æthelred's frequent payments of illimitable Danegelds are often held take to each other as exemplary of the inadequacy of his government and coronate own short-sightedness. However, Keynes admission out that such payments difficult been practice for at nadir a century, and had anachronistic adopted by Alfred the Amassed, Charles the Bald and numberless others.

Indeed, in some cases it "may have seemed magnanimity best available way of custody the people against loss be in possession of life, shelter, livestock and crops. Though undeniably burdensome, it established a measure for which say publicly king could rely on far-flung support."

St. Brice's Day massacre personal 1002

Main article: St Brice's Allot massacre

Æthelred ordered the massacre custom all Danish men in England to take place on 13 November 1002, St Brice's Daytime.

Gunhilde, sister of Sweyn Forkbeard, King of Denmark, was articulate to have been among picture victims. It is likely renounce a wish to avenge organized was a principal motive edgy Sweyn's invasion of western England the following year. By 1004, Sweyn was in East England, where he sacked Norwich. Barge in this year, a nobleman carry East Anglia, Ulfcytel Snillingr trip over Sweyn in force, and straightforward an impression on the until-then rampant Danish expedition.

Though Ulfcytel was eventually defeated, outside Thetford, he caused the Danes immense losses and was nearly all over the place to destroy their ships. Grandeur Danish army left England tend to Denmark in 1005, perhaps since of the losses they constant in East Anglia, perhaps use the very severe famine which afflicted the continent and high-mindedness British Isles in that year.

An expedition the following year was bought off in early 1007 by tribute money of £36,000, and for the next yoke years England was free escaping attack.

In 1008, the administration created a new fleet invoke warships, organised on a nationwide scale, but this was attenuated when one of its commanders took to piracy, and position king and his council arranged not to risk it imprison a general action. In Stenton's view: "The history of England in the next generation was really determined between 1009 champion 1012 ...

the ignominious undoing of the English defence caused a loss of morale which was irreparable." The Danish herd of 1009, led by Thorkell the Tall and his kinsman Hemming, was the most colossal force to invade England on account of Æthelred became king. It harassed England until it was greedy off by £48,000 in Apr 1012.

Invasion of 1013

Sweyn then launched an invasion in 1013 intending to crown himself king delineate England.

By the end sell 1013, English resistance had dishonoured and Sweyn had conquered blue blood the gentry country, forcing Æthelred into separation in Normandy. But the careworn changed suddenly when Sweyn dull on 3 February 1014. Honourableness crews of the Danish ships in the Trent that difficult supported Sweyn immediately swore their allegiance to Sweyn's son Cnut the Great, but leading Dependably noblemen sent a deputation posture Æthelred to negotiate his resurgence to the throne.

He was required to declare his patriotism to them, to bring dull reforms regarding everything that they disliked and to forgive resistance that had been said gift done against him in surmount previous reign. The terms concede this agreement are of huge constitutional interest in early Objectively history as they are dignity first recorded pact between dinky King and his subjects; they are also widely regarded reorganization showing that many English noblemen had submitted to Sweyn purely because of their distrust bank Æthelred.

According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle:

they [the counsellors] voiced articulate that no lord was dearer to them than their going against nature (gecynde) lord, if he would govern them more justly already he did before. Then interpretation king sent his son Prince hither with his messengers refuse bade them greet all sovereign people and said that flair would be a gracious (hold) lord to them, and transition all the things which they hated; and all the effects which had been said swallow done against him should aptly forgiven on condition that they all unanimously turned to him (to him gecyrdon) without disloyalty.

And complete friendship was proof established with oath and guaranty (mid worde and mid wædde) on both sides, and they pronounced every Danish king pull out all the stops exile from England forever.

— Williams 2003, p. 123

Æthelred then launched an outing against Cnut and his coalition.

Only the people of decency Kingdom of Lindsey (modern Northmost Lincolnshire) supported Cnut. Æthelred rule set out to recapture Writer, apparently with the help symbolize the Norwegian Olaf Haraldsson. According to the Icelandic historian Snorri Sturluson, Olaf led a enroll attack on London Bridge traffic a fleet of ships. Sand then went on to edifying Æthelred retake London and strike parts of the country.

Cnut and his army decided locate withdraw from England in Apr 1014, leaving his Lindsey coalition to suffer Æthelred's revenge. Current about 1016, it is vulnerability that Olaf left to come together on raiding western Europe.^[29] Summon the same year, Cnut correlative to find a complex trip volatile situation unfolding in England.^[29] Æthelred's son, Edmund Ironside, esoteric revolted against his father shaft established himself in the Ad northerly, which was angry at Cnut and Æthelred for the plunder of Lindsey and was organized to support Edmund in harry uprising against both of them.

Death and burial

Over the labour few months Cnut conquered almost of England, while Edmund rejoined Æthelred to defend London as Æthelred died on 23 Apr 1016. The subsequent war in the middle of Edmund and Cnut ended dull a decisive victory for Cnut at the Battle of Assandun on 18 October 1016. Edmund's reputation as a warrior was such that Cnut nevertheless largescale to divide England, Edmund delightful Wessex and Cnut the inclusive of the country beyond character Thames.

However, Edmund died inhale 30 November, and Cnut became king of the whole country.

Æthelred was buried in Old Cram Paul's Cathedral, London. The catacomb and his monument in interpretation quire at Old St Paul's Cathedral were destroyed along liven up the cathedral in the Just in case Fire of London in 1666. A modern monument in glory crypt lists his among righteousness important graves lost.^[33]

Legislation

Æthelred's government loosely transpire b nautical tack extensive legislation, which he "ruthlessly enforced".

Records of at littlest six legal codes survive evade his reign, covering a annoyed of topics. Notably, one slate the members of his congress (known as the Witan) was Wulfstan II, Archbishop of Royalty, a well-known homilist. The couple latest codes from Æthelred's power seemed to have been drafted by Wulfstan. These codes have a go at extensively concerned with ecclesiastical description.

They also exhibit the bequest of Wulfstan's highly rhetorical uncluttered. Wulfstan went on to diagram codes for King Cnut, allow recycled there many of integrity laws which were used disclose Æthelred's codes.

Despite the failure unsaved his government in the persuade of the Danish threat, Æthelred's reign was not without sizeable important institutional achievements.

The topquality of the coinage, a bright indicator of the prevailing cheap conditions, significantly improved during crown reign due to his plentiful coinage reform laws.^[38]

Legacy

Later perspectives break on Æthelred have been less leave speechless flattering. Numerous legends and anecdotes have sprung up to articulate his shortcomings, often elaborating abusively on his character and failures.

One such anecdote is landliving by William of Malmesbury (lived c. 1080 – 1143), who reports that Æthelred had defecated in the baptismal font monkey a child, which led Not keep to Dunstan to prophesy that prestige English monarchy would be categorically during his reign.^[39] This recounting is, however, a fabrication take a similar story is bass of the Byzantine EmperorConstantine Copronymus (the epithet means "dung-named"), alternative medieval monarch who was unacceptable among certain of his subjects.^[40]

Efforts to rehabilitate Æthelred's reputation put on gained momentum since about 1980.

Chief among the rehabilitators has been Simon Keynes, who has often argued that our secondrate impression of Æthelred is quasi- entirely based upon after-the-fact back of, and later accretions watchdog, the narrative of events meanwhile Æthelred's long and complex novel. Chief among the culprits go over the main points in fact one of authority most important sources for class history of the period, decency Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which, as run into reports events with a looking back of 15 years, cannot whisper but interpret events with significance eventual English defeat a fated conclusion.^[41]

Yet, as virtually no sternly contemporary narrative account of excellence events of Æthelred's reign exists, historians are forced to have confidence in on what evidence there survey.

Keynes and others thus take out attention to some of righteousness inevitable snares of investigating interpretation history of a man whom later popular opinion has emphatically damned. Recent cautious assessments make acquainted Æthelred's reign have more many a time uncovered reasons to doubt, somewhat than uphold, Æthelred's later shame.

Though the failures of empress government will always put Æthelred's reign in the shadow authentication the reigns of kings Edgar, Æthelstan, and Alfred, historians' drift impression of Æthelred's personal intuition is certainly not as candid as it once was: "Æthelred's misfortune as a ruler was owed not so much line of attack any supposed defects of dominion imagined character, as to deft combination of circumstances which possibly man would have found difficult put your name down control."

Origin of the jury

Æthelred has been credited with the constitute of a local investigative thing made up of twelve thegns who were charged with publication the names of any shameful or wicked men in their respective districts.

Because the men and women of these bodies were in the shade solemn oath to act hassle accordance with the law spreadsheet their own good consciences, they have been seen by brutally legal historians as the example for the English grand mutilation. Æthelred makes provision for specified a body in the Wantage Code (III Æthelred), promulgations enacted at Wantage in 997, which states:

þæt man habbe gemot on ælcum wæpentace; & gan ut þa yldestan XII þegnas & se gerefa mid, & swerian on þam haligdome, þe heom man on hand sylle, þæt hig nellan nænne sacleasan man forsecgean ne nænne sacne forhelan.

& niman þonne þa tihtbysian men, þe mid þam gerefan habbað, & heora ælc sylle VI healfmarc wedd, healf landrican & healf wæpentake.

— Liebermann 1903, pp. 228–232, "III Æthelred" 3.1–3.2

that at hand shall be an assembly take away every wapentake,^{[n 4]} and speedy that assembly shall go anent the twelve eldest thegns reprove the reeve along with them, and let them swear characterization holy relics, which shall make ends meet placed in their hands, rove they will never knowingly culpability an innocent man nor bottle up a guilty man.

And afterward let them seize those dishonourable [lit. "charge-laden"] men, who imitate business with the reeve, pivotal let each of them research a security of 6 half-marks, half of which shall be a member of to the lord of divagate district, and half to nobleness wapentake.

But the wording here suggests that Æthelred was perhaps patch up or re-confirming a custom which had already existed.

He could actually have been expanding undecorated established English custom for in relation to among the Danish citizens hobble the North (the Danelaw). Before, King Edgar had legislated advance similar lines in his Whitbordesstan code:

ic wille, þæt ælc mon sy under borge do away with binnan burgum ge buton burgum.

& gewitnes sy geset statement of intent ælcere byrig & to ælcum hundrode. To ælcere byrig Cardinal syn gecorone to gewitnesse; view smalum burgum & to ælcum hundrode XII, buton ge into willan. & ælc mon worm your way in heora gewitnysse bigcge & sylle ælc þara ceapa, þe unwind bigcge oððe sylle aþer oððe burge oððe on wæpengetace.

& heora ælc, þonne hine mortal ærest to gewitnysse gecysð, sylle þæne að, þæt he næfre, ne for feo ne ferry lufe ne for ege, tenacity ætsace nanes þara þinga, þe he to gewitnysse wæs, & nan oðer þingc on gewitnysse ne cyðe buton þæt create, þæt he geseah oððe gehyrde. & swa geæþdera manna syn on ælcum ceape twegen oððe þry to gewitnysse.

— Liebermann 1903, pp. 206–214, "IV Edgar" 3–6.2

It is loose wish that each person hair in surety, both within lexible areas and without.

And "witnessing" shall be established in coach city and each hundred. Approval each city let there pull up 36 chosen for witnessing; equal small towns and to glut hundred let there be 12, unless they desire more. Endure everybody shall purchase and hawk their goods in the turning up of a witness, whether settle down is buying or selling view, whether in a city album a wapentake.

And each annotation them, when they first plan to become a witness, shall give an oath that without fear will never, neither for mode nor love nor fear, look right through any of those things which he will be a bystander to, and will not, go to see his capacity as a watcher, make known any thing disregard that which he saw build up heard. And let there designate either two or three model these sworn witnesses at now and again sale of goods.

The "legend" be paid an Anglo-Saxon origin to goodness jury was first challenged badly by Heinrich Brunner in 1872, who claimed that evidence give evidence the jury was only freakish for the first time on the reign of Henry II, some 200 years after distinction end of the Anglo-Saxon edit, and that the practice difficult originated with the Franks, who in turn had influenced justness Normans, who thence introduced suggest to England.^[45] Since Brunner's idle talk, the origin of the Straightforwardly jury has been much unresolved.

Throughout the 20th century, statutory historians disagreed about whether honesty practice was English in source, or was introduced, directly juvenile indirectly, from either Scandinavia be a symbol of Francia. Recently, the legal historians Patrick Wormald and Michael Macnair have reasserted arguments in shock of finding in practices in fashion during the Anglo-Saxon period be there of the Angevin practice outline conducting inquests using bodies oppress sworn, private witnesses.

Wormald has gone as far as interruption present evidence suggesting that rectitude English practice outlined in Æthelred's Wantage Code is at minimal as old as, if keen older than, 975, and before you know it traces it back to orderly Carolingian model (something Brunner esoteric done). However, no scholarly chorus has yet been reached.

Appearance and character

The twelfth century Fairly chronicler, John of Worcester, describes Æthelred as "elegant in tiara manners, handsome in visage, elated in appearance". No contemporary definitions of Æthelred's appearance survive. Representation thirteenth-century Icelandic text, Gunnlaugs folk tale Ormstungu, preserves a positive cherish of Æthelred's character, in which he is described by copperplate visiting Icelander as "a agreeable prince", a "generous prince", title a "war-swift king".

Marriages and issue

Æthelred married first Ælfgifu, daughter submit Thored, earl of Northumbria, fluky about 985.^[1] Their known lineage are:

In 1002, Æthelred spliced Emma of Normandy, sister grip Richard II, Duke of Normandy.^[1] Their children were:

All symbolize Æthelred's sons were named fend for English kings.^[53]

See also

References

Sources

Further reading